India's Space Exploration Journey: From Pioneering Missions to Mars-Moon Analogue Missions

India’s space exploration journey has been extraordinary. Born out of Dr. Vikram Sarabhai’s dream, often hailed as the father of the Indian Space programme, the Indian Space Research Organisation took concrete shape with a mission to harness space technology. ISRO’s journey, which started in the early 1960s, began on a humble note by the Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) with modest resources and aspirations aimed firmly at enhancing India’s research capabilities.

From launching its first sounding rocket from a small fishing village in Kerala in 1963 to landing on Mars on its first attempt in 2014, India displayed unrivalled motivation to innovate and deliver at low costs in space. This determination and efficiency for price and impact has made India do much more for space research than many other countries in the world. With missions like Chandrayaan-3, which have touched historic milestones, to collaborations like the Mars and Moon analogue mission in Ladakh, India's space program is stretching further into new horizons. While India is developing in this respect, it's also positioning itself as a future base for international cooperation and analogue simulations for extraterrestrial research, securing its position on the world stage while staying true to its grassroots purpose of serving humanity.

Early missions and technological advancements

India’s initial foray into space began with the launch of Aryabhata in 1975, a remarkable achievement that demonstrated India’s capabilities in satellite technology. Named after the ancient Indian astronomer, Aryabhata was India’s first satellite, and its successful launch marked a giant leap for the country’s space program. This milestone underlined India's determination to build indigenous satellite technology and laid a foundation for advancements in space exploration. The journey of putting together a reliable satellite launch vehicle was not without its share of teething problems that plagued India for a decade through the 1970s and 1980s. Its engineers toiled to conquer setbacks and emerged with flying colours with the Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) program. This success displayed ISRO's unwavering determination to overcome technical setbacks that would eventually come to be expected from the Indian space program.

The launch of Indian National Satellite (INSAT) and Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellite systems further underlined the practical utility of space technology. Satellites servicing telecommunications, broadcasting, and meteorology played a key role in linking rural and urban areas. Satellites brought educational content to the most remote villages, better-monitored weather conditions to prepare for disasters, and allowed telemedicine to regions with limited healthcare access. The early emphasis on satellites for socio-economic development carried the fulfilment of the vision that Dr. Vikram Sarabhai had for India’s space program: It should accord "top priority to the solution of our urgent problems of agricultural and industrial development." Each subsequent mission was an evolution, from mastering launch technology to designing and deploying satellites that could support agriculture, resource management, and climate monitoring. These were not only technological milestones, but also reflected ISRO’s endeavour in using space technology for national development.

Notable achievements: Chandrayaan and Mangalyaan

The Chandrayaan-1 space mission, which was launched in 2008, marked one of the major milestones of India in space exploration. Chandrayaan-1, the first lunar mission by India, had a mission of mapping the Moon's surface and it subsequently discovered the presence of water molecules on the Moon. A pathbreaking discovery that had brought about a sea of change in the understanding of the global scientific community about the composition of the Moon, especially in its polar regions proved that India was capable of contributing to major scientific discoveries. This placed India on the map of big space players and drew international acclaim-a mission of substantial scientific value. After the successful completion of Chandrayaan, ISRO had trained its guns on Mars: the ambitious leap under the maiden Mars Orbiter Mission, that is, Mangalyaan, which blasted off in 2013 and made India the first Asian country to land successfully at Mars with one attempt. Worldwide, MOM was hailed for its scientific objectives and its astounding cost-effectiveness. The mission Mangalyaan was probably the least expensive interplanetary ever with an estimated budget of around US$ 74 million, a signature of ISRO's expertise in resourcefulness and innovation.

Mangalyaan’s success went beyond technical achievement—it symbolised India's capacity to conduct complex interplanetary missions independently. The mission captured valuable data from Mars’s atmosphere and surface, further solidifying India’s status in the global space community. Together, Chandrayaan and Mangalyaan exemplify India's commitment to cost-efficient and impactful space exploration, marking milestones that resonate far beyond India’s borders.

Moon-Mars analogue missions in India

India’s unique landscapes, particularly in Ladakh, provide an ideal testing ground for space mission simulations due to their resemblance to the extreme environments found on the Moon and Mars. Ladakh’s barren, rocky terrain, high altitude, and temperature fluctuations closely mimic Martian and lunar conditions, making it a natural laboratory for analogue space missions. In November 2024, ISRO launched India’s first Mars-Moon analogue mission in Leh and Ladakh, in collaboration with AAKA Space Studio, the University of Ladakh, IIT Bombay, and the Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council. This mission aims to simulate interplanetary habitats and test technology essential for future lunar and Martian exploration.

The harsh conditions in Ladakh, including oxygen levels that are only 40% of those at sea level and temperature shifts from 15°C to -10°C, create challenges like those astronauts would face on Mars or the Moon. The analogue mission involves a human-centred habitat prototype designed by AAKA Space Studio, featuring advanced technology like an Extra-Vehicular Activity (EVA) preparation zone, circadian lighting systems for sleep-cycle management, hydroponics for sustainable food production, and an environmental monitoring system. An astronaut will reside within this habitat for 21 days, testing life-support systems and studying human adaptation to isolation.

India’s efforts in analogue simulations reflect its role in global space exploration. This analogue mission not only supports ISRO’s upcoming human spaceflight program, Gaganyaan, but also positions India as a potential hub for international space collaboration. By providing insights into habitat sustainability and astronaut well-being, these missions contribute to advancing the science of space habitation, fostering partnerships, and preparing for long-duration human missions on the Moon and Mars.

Prospects and vision: India’s path to the stars

India’s space ambitions set a promising course for future exploration, technological advancement and economic growth. Among its historic feats, Chandrayaan-3 successfully landed near the south pole of the Moon in 2023. ISRO proposes the further development of lunar missions and increasing interplanetary scope. The key mission concerning its future activities is Gaganyaan, India's first human spaceflight mission, which will send Indian astronauts to low Earth orbit for 3-7 days. Slated to fly by 2025, Gaganyaan will put India in the exclusive club of nations possessing capabilities for human spaceflight, a privilege now reserved only for the United States, Russia and China.

Looking beyond standalone missions, ISRO envisions technology development that will take India into deeper space exploration and elevate self-reliance in many critical space sectors. Projects like Navigation with Indian Constellation (NavIC) and Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) underline ISRO's capability to deploy indigenous regional satellite systems for communication, navigation and remote sensing. If taken, for instance, NavIC provides accurate positioning over the Indian subcontinent, hosting several applications from disaster management to agricultural planning. These are not only scientific advancements but also key economic drivers that will help India reduce its dependency on foreign technology and foster a space ecosystem projected to bring in more than US$ 50 billion in revenue by 2030.

International cooperation is another pillar of the Indian space strategy. The general objective of the NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar mission, ISRO's NASA collaborative mission, is to monitor changes in ecosystems, dynamics of the ice sheets, and natural hazards. Several other international missions will add to India's technological capability and improve its position in the space exploration. But India's philosophy is to remain as cost-effective as possible. For example, Mangalyaan, the Mars Orbiter Mission accomplished in 2014, cost a mere US$ 74 million, one of the cheapest Mars missions ever conducted. This budget-conscious approach has become a core advantage, enabling India to achieve impactful outcomes within limited financial constraints.